On Female Subjectivity and Power: Gender Politics and Occupational Sex Segregation in The Conductor

Hung-Chang Liao; Ya-Huei Wang

doi:10.24071/joll.v25i1.9846

On Female Subjectivity and Power: Gender Politics and Occupational Sex Segregation in The Conductor

Hung-Chang Liao⁽¹⁾, Ya-Huei Wang^(2*),

(1) Chung Shan Medical University; Chung Shan Medical University Hospital
(2) Chung Shan Medical University; Chung Shan Medical University Hospital
(*) Corresponding Author

Abstract

Research has shown that gender inequality persists at managerial levels, with an increasing number of women occupying middle and lower managerial positions while men dominate higher managerial roles. This phenomenon, often referred to as the “glass ceiling,” represents an invisible barrier characterized by gender biases that prevent women from attaining high-level positions within organizations. A notable gender gap remains in the professionalization of the classical music field, particularly in orchestral conducting. To understand how gender politics and occupational sex segregation affect women’s career development, workplace relationships, and gender relations, this study conducts qualitative research using latent-content analysis of the film The Conductor. It examines how women experience occupational sex segregation under gender politics and societal norms. The findings reveal that deep-rooted gender norms and biases within male-dominated professions not only limit women’s access to leadership roles but also reinforce occupational segregation. By highlighting the struggles of women in breaking barriers, the studyexplores the potential for women to cultivate their own female subjectivity, empowering them to overcome occupational sex segregation and affirming their significance in male-dominated professions. This research has some limitations as it focuses on the narratives of an individual female in the film and hence cannot adequately represent the diverse experiences of women in different occupations. Future research may compare and analyze real-life cases from different occupations and cultural backgrounds to gain a comprehensive understanding of gender dynamics.

Keywords

gender subjectivity; gender power; gender politics; occupational sex segregation; glass ceiling

Full Text:

PDF

References

Anker, R., Melkas, H., & Korten, A. (2003). Gender-based occupational segregation in the 1990s. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.

Bachtrack (2024). A steady transformation: Bachtrack’s 2023 classical music statistics. Retrieved September 5, 2024 from https://bachtrack.com/classical-music-statistics-2023.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY, USA: W.H. Freeman.

Bartleet, B. (2008). You’re a woman and our orchestra just won’t have you: The politics of otherness in the conducting profession. Hecate: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Women’s Liberation, 34(1), 6–23. http://hdl.handle.net/10072/26142.

Beauvoir, S. de. (2010). The second sex. New York, NY, USA: Vintage Books.

Bennett, J. M. (2008). Forgetting the past. Gender & History, 20, 669–677.

Bogdan, R., & Taylor, S. (1975). Introduction to qualitative research methods. New York, New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Bowers, J. M. (1990). Feminist scholarship and the field of musicology: I. College Music Symposium, 29, 81–92.

Burgess, D., & Borgida, E. (1999). Who women are, who women should be: Descriptive and prescriptive gender stereotyping in sex discrimination. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 5(3), 665–692. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.5.3.665.

Busch, B. R. (1984). The complete choral conductor: Gesture and method. New York, NY, USA: Schirmer Books.

Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York, NY, USA: Routledge.

Cheng, M. N. H. (1998). Women conductors: Has the train left the station? Harmony, 6, 81–90.

Charles, M. (2003). Deciphering sex segregation: Vertical and horizontal inequalities in ten national labor markets. Acta Sociologica, 46(4), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/000169930346400.

Citron, M. J. (1993). Gender and musical canon. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Connell, R.W. (1994). Psychoanalysis on masculinity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp.12–38). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage.

Connolly, S., & Gregory, M. (2008) Moving down: Women’s part-time work and occupational change in Britain 1991-2001. Economic Journal, 118(526), F52 –F76.

Correll, S. J. (2001). Gender and the career choice process: The role of biased self-assessments. American Journal of Sociology, 106(6), 1691–1730. https://doi.org/10.1086/321299.

Coulangeon, P., Ravet, H., Roharik, I. (2005). Gender differentiated effect of time in performing arts professions: Musicians, actors and dancers in contemporary France. Poetics, 33(5-6), 369–387.

Costrich, N., Feinstein, J., Kidder, L., Marecek, J., & Pascale, L. (1975). When stereotypes hurt: Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals. Journal f Experimental Social Psychology, 11(6), 520-530. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(75)90003-7.

Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M., Ovadia, S., & Vanneman, R. (2001). The glass ceiling effect. Social Forces, 80, 655–682.

Creswell, J. (2000). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage.

Das, S., & Kotikula, A. (2019). Gender-based employment segregation: Understanding causes and policy interventions. Washington, DC, USA: The World Bank.

Decker, H. A., & Kirk, C. J (1995). Choral conducting: Focus on communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

de Lauretis, T. (1987). Technologies of gender: Essays on theory, film, and fiction. Bloomington, Indiana, USA: Indiana University Press.

Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188.

Dunbar, J. C. (2020). Women, music, culture: An Introduction. New York, New York, USA: Routledge

Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard Business School Press.

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573.

Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 275–298.

Galkin, E. W. (1988). A history of orchestral conducting: In theory and practice. New York, NY, USA: Pendragon Press.

German, L. (1981). Theories of patriarchy. International Socialism. 2(12). https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/german/1981/xx/patriarchy.htm.

Glickman, S., & Schleifer, M. F. (2003). Women composers: Music through the ages. New York, NY, USA: G.K. Hall.

Goldin, C., & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of “blind” auditions on female musicians. American Economic Review, 90(4), 715–741.

Haddock, G., & Zanna, M. P. (1994). Preferring “housewives” to “feminists”: Categorization and the favorability of attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 25–52.

Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234.

Heilman, M. E., & Parks-Stamm, E. J. (2007), Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Obstacles to women’s career progress. In S. J. Correll (Ed.) Social psychology of gender (Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 24) (pp. 47–77). Leeds, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Higgins, C. (2013). Male conductors are better for orchestras, says Vasily Petrenko. The Guardian. Retrieved August 15, 2023 from https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/sep/02/male-conductors-better-orchestras-vasily-petrenko.

Hallam, S., Rogers, L., & Creech, A. (2008). Gender differences in musical instrument choice. International Journal of Music Education, 26(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761407085646.

Hansen, S. (2009). Women, conductors, and the tenure Process: What’s up in the academy? In J. C. Conlon (Ed.), Wisdom, wit, and will: Women choral conductors on their art (pp. 183-232. Chicago, IL, USA: GIA Publications.

Hesmondhalgh, D., Baker, S. (2015). Sex, gender and work segregation in the cultural industries. Sociological Review, 63(Suppl 1): 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.12238.

Howe, S. W. (2009). A historical view of woman in music education careers. Philosophy of Music Education Review, 17(2), 162–183.

Hymowitz, C., & Schellhardt, T. D. (1986). The glass-ceiling: Why women can’t seem to break the invisible barrier that blocks them from top jobs. Wall Street Journal, March 24, 1.

Irigaray, L. (1985). This sex which is not one. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell University Press.

Jarman, J., Blackburn, R. M., & Racko, G. (2012). The dimensions of occupational gender segregation in industrial countries. Sociology, 46(6), 1003–1019.

Kaufman, M. (1994). Men, feminism, and men’s contradictory experiences of power. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp.142–164). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage.

Khwela, B. C., Derera, E., & Kubheka, Z. (2020). Women in leadership and the glass ceiling effect: a comparative study of the private and public sectors in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies, 12(2), 368–383.

Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616–642.

Koskoff, E. (1989). Women and music in cross-cultural perspective. Champaign, IL, USA: University of Illinois.

Koskoff, E. (1995). When women play: The relationship between musical instruments and gender style. Canadian University Music Review, 16(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.7202/1014419ar.

McClary, S. (1990). Towards a feminist criticism of music. Canadian University Music Review, 10(2), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.7202/1014882ar.

McClary, S. (2002). Feminine endings: Music, gender, and sexuality. Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Press.

Meulders, D., O’Dorchai, S. P., Plasman, R., & Rigo, A. (2010). Horizontal and vertical segregation. Retrieved July 25, 2024 from https://www.genderportal.eu/sites/default/files/resource_pool/TR1_Segregation.pdf.

Osborne, W. (1996). Art is just an excuse: Gender bias in international orchestras. Journal of the International Alliance for Women in Music, 2(3), 6–14.

Pai, K., & Vaidya, S. (2009). Glass ceiling: role of women in the corporate world. Competitiveness Review, 19(2), 106–113.

Pachtrack (2024). A steady transformation: Bachtrack’s 2023 Classical Music Statistics. June 23, 2024 from https://bachtrack.com/classical-music-statistics-2023.

Pendle K. (1991). Women and music: A history. Bloomington, IN, USA: Indiana University Press.

Pentreath, R. (2021). 81 percent of women say it’s harder for female artists in music, with sexual harassment a key challenge. Retrieved July 26, 2024 from https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/women-in-music/81-percent-say-more-difficult-female-artists-sexual-harassment/.

Peters, M. (2019). The conductor. Antwerpen, Belgium: Menuetto Film.

Phillips, A. (1991). Engendering democracy. University Park, PA, USA: Penn States Press.

Phillips, K. H. (1997). Basic techniques of conducting. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.

Powell, G. N. (2011). Women and men in management (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage.

Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066.

Pujar, S. (2016). Gender inequality in the cultural sector. Brussels, Belgium: Cultural Action Europe.

Rao, D. (2009). Feminine perspectives on conducting and teaching choral music. In J. C. Conlon (Ed.), Wisdom, wit, and will: Women choral conductors on their art (pp. 233–267. Chicago, IL, USA: GIA Publications.

Ravet, H. (2016). Female conductors: Eternal pioneers. Translated by Hélène Tronc. Travail, Genre et sociétés, 35(1), 107–125.

Reich, N. B. (1991). European composers and musicians, ca. 1800–1890. In K. Pendle (Ed.), Women & music: A history (pp.97–141). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510–531.

Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 743–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00239.

Schein, V. E. (2001). A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 675–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00235.

Skelly, J., & Johnson, J. B. (2011). Glass ceilings and great expectations: Gender stereotype impact on female professionals. Southern Law Journal, 21(1), 59–70.

Smith, P., Caputi, P. & Crittenden, N. (2012). How are women's glass ceiling beliefs related to career success?. Career Development International, 17(5), 458-474.

Trevino, L. J., Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Mixon, F. G. (2015). Meritocracies or masculinities? The differential allocation of named professorships by gender in the academy. Journal of Management, 44(3), 972–1000.

Vogel, D. L., Wester, S. R., Heesacker, M., Madon, S. (2003). Confirming gender stereotypes: A social role perspective. Sex Roles, 48(11/12), 519–528.

Walby, S. (1990). Theorizing patriarchy. Cambridge, MA, USA: B. Blackwell Publishers.

Zahra, F. K., Wah, Y. L., Behzad, G., & Effat, M. K. (2013). Perception of masculinity amongst young Malaysian men: a qualitative study of university students. BMC Public Health, 13, 1062.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24071/joll.v25i1.9846