Cohesive Devices in Learners ’ Writing

In ESL context, learners may have less attention to the use of conjunctions. In fact, the use of conjunctions in L2 learners’ writings is crucial since it is one type of cohesive devices. This paper aims to find the cohesive devices of conjunctions used by the learners. Through analyzing eight learners’ essays, the writer found 37 forms and 12 types of conjunctions in the learners’ essays. The most significant form of conjunctions was‘and’, whereas the most significant types of conjunction was‘addition’. Moreover, the writer also found some inappropriate use of conjunctions, which are grouped into five, namely, unclassified, wrong mechanism, L1 interference, wrong forms of conjunctions, and grammatical error.


A. INTRODUCTION
Non-native speakers of English commonly face a problem related to the use of cohesive devices while they produce essays in second language (L2).The term "cohesive device", in this paper, only points out to one type of it, that is, conjunction (see Halliday and Hasan, 1976;Fernald, in Funk andWagnalls, 1904, in Roen, 1984;Fahnestock, 1983).Some experts may recognize conjunction as a transition word (see Winterowd, 1970).Some examples of words or phrases which are categorized as conjunction or transition word are'therefore', 'on the otherhand', and 'furthermore' (Roen, 1984).Those words or phrases function to connect two sentences or more in a paragraph or two paragraphs or more in an essay.In other words, conjunction helps author to clarify her or his ideas by giving example, effect, explanation or others.Conjunction simply becomes a bridge to join the main idea and supporting idea in a paragraph or essay.
The use of appropriate conjunction in an essay allows readers to grabthe author's idea successfully.This becomes one of the indicators that the author's writing is cohesive and coherent (see Meyer, 2005;Murray and Geraldine, 2008;Williams, 2003).For L2 learners, to compose a good cohesive and coherent essay is not easy.Regarding conjunction, sometimes, L2 learners will transfer their L1's form or structure into L2.When L2 learners do it, the learners' writing will sound awkward.Hence, the use of conjunction in someone's writing gives a great impact on reader's comprehension.
Although the use of conjunction is important in writing, there is still a few papers concerning on the issue, especially in L2 learner's writing.In fact, there is no doubt that L2 learner's writing still produces many mistakes on the use of conjunction.Sometimes, a L2 learner is confused to use the right form or type of conjunctions for certain cases.When learner has a little knowledge upon conjunction, learner will use his or her sense to choose the conjunction words.The use of sense, in this case, may lead learner to choose inappropriate conjunction words.Therefore, it will lead to the misinterpretation for reader since the essay is not enough understandable.
Since the use of conjunction as cohesive device is important, the writer conductsresearch upon the use of conjunction cohesive device in learner's writing, in this case, in the form of essay.The paper aims to inquire about the conjunction type commonly used in learner's writing using one research problem, that is, 'what conjunction cohesive devices do learnersuse in their writing?'.The information upon the type of conjunction cohesive device used in learner's writing helps the writer to investigate the influence of L1 in the students' L2 writing.In order to obtain the answer, some underlying theories will be discussed, such as the definition of cohesive device, type of conjunction, and principle of L2 cohesive and coherent writing.

B. COHESIVE DEVICES: CONJUNCTIONS
The essential thing about cohesive device is its function in text.The operational definition of cohesive device can bediscerned from the word 'cohesion'."Cohesion is the linking of elements of the text through repetition (or redundancy) of information at the semantic, syntactic, and discourse structure levels" (Cox et al., 1990: p. 49).Cohesive device is used as a linking elementto bridge sentences in a paragraph or an essay.Halliday and Hasan (1976) also have similar definition that cohesion occursto bind sentences together in order to hold the inherent meaning in the connected sentences.When it is omitted in an essay, the reader will have difficulty in understanding the meaning.Hence, cohesive device is important both to readers in constructing the meaning from an essay and to the author in creating an essay that can be easily comprehended.
Hassan and Halliday (1976) classified cohesive devices into four, namely reference, substitution, lexical continuity, and conjunction.This paper will only discuss conjunctions.In this case, conjunction expresses certain meaning which presupposes the presence of other components in the discourse.In other words, conjunction delivers the cohesive relationship in such a way that it meets the logical framework in constructing the author's ideas as unity.Hassan and Halliday (1976) categorize cohesive device into four basic types: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal.Additive conjunction is a cohesiverelation where author groups sentences together under the heading of additive.The relation is structurally in the form of coordination, the 'and' form and the 'or' form.The simple additive conjunctions appears using 'and', 'or', 'in addition'.When additive attempts to give further explanation in the previous meaning, adversative attempts to bring the converse meaning which is contrary to expectation from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, and speaker-hearer situation.The adversative conjunction usually uses the words, 'but', 'yet', 'in fact', and 'however'.On the other hand, causal conjunction are expressed using 'so', 'thus', 'hence', 'therefore', consequently', 'accordingly', 'as a result (of that)', 'in consequence (of that)', and 'because of that'.Then, the temporalconjunctionrelates two successive sentences in which their relation in external terms as content are a sequence in time.One sentence is simply subsequent to another.The relation is signaledwith 'then', 'next', 'finally', and 'meanwhile'.Winterowd (1970Winterowd ( & 1975) categorizes the conjunction, also called transition words, into seven: coordinate, observative, causative, conclusive, alternative, inclusive, and sequential (see Fahnestock, 1983;Roen, 1984).Words that signal coordinateinclude 'and', 'furthermore ', 'in addition to', 'also', 'too', and 'again Sequence is the simplest relation of time order.The order of the two sentences suggests the order of the two actions or events or states they specify.Restatement employs when the second of two sentences or clauses in sequence can say essentially the same thing as the first, though in different words and usually in greater detail.Exemplification occurs when a sentence can be related to the immediately preceding one because it gives an example of the set introduced in the first.Premise happens whena second sentence can be related to the one before it as a reason, a cause, or an explanation.Conclusion suggests a second sentence or clause can follow as a consequence, inference, or entailment from the one before it, which is then a premise.Similarity happens when the second of two sentences or clauses can make a point or report an action analogous to the one in the sentence before it.The last one is addition.A second sentence or clause can follow the one before it simply as another point, another thing to be said.This "next thing" must bear some relation to the preceding point, as for instance by being another item in some series, but it is never as close as a deliberate comparison or one of the other kinds of connections just discussed.
Replacement occurs when the second of two clauses or sentences can make a point intended to replace the first, to discriminate or differentiate or make a clarifying distinction for the reader.Exception happens when the first of two sentences establishes a set, the second can exclude something from that set.Concession occurs when the second of two clauses or sentences may acknowledge an apparent if not real contradiction of the first, or it may qualify the first.Denied implication is a conclusion acts as a statement that follows from the clause or sentence which precedes it, but the second of a pair of clauses or sentences can reject or deny an apparent implication of the first.Contrast happens when the second in a pair of clauses or sentences can point out facts or inferences that differ from those just mentioned.Alternation happens when the second of two sentences or clauses can offer a choice which would exclude the first.Alternation is perhaps not strictly the negative or opposite of addition.Anomalous sequence happens whenever a simple sequence is the implicit connection between two sentences, time transition words are not necessary.But whenever any anomaly in time order exists between two sentences or clauses, an explicit transition word is necessary, and the language is filled with words and phrases to signal the more complex time relationships of simultaneity (e.g."meanwhile"), going backwards in time (e.g."before"), and hurrying forward in some unpredictable way (e.g."five years later").

C. WRITING IN L2
Holloway (1981) proposes three semantic theories employed to teach writing, namely, the case grammar approach to language, 'given-new' contract approach, and cohesion approach.Since the focus of this paper is on cohesion, the writer only highlights the cohesive approach.Holloway (1981) states that cohesive approach discerns that a paragraph does not only refer to a grammatical structure focusing on the use of grammar patterns in the whole paragraph.This approach merely discerns the unity of a paragraph as a semantic structure.In a nutshell, the connectedness between the previous sentence and the next sentence within a paragraph is essential.
In L2 context, writing an essay may import or shift the insight of L1 principles (Kroll, 1991).It means that L2 learners cannot avoid their L1 habits in writing.This is the reason why L1 form can appear in the learners' writing.It shows that writing in L2 is a big task so that writing always becomes the last activity in integrated language learning, after listening, speaking, and reading.Kroll (1991: 261) states that, "producingsuccessful written text is a complex task which requires simultaneous control over a number of language system as well an ability to factor in considerations of the ways the discourse must be shaped for particular audience and a particular purpose."Kroll's statement shows that teacher should pay much attention to their learners in teaching writing.Many factors and details should be considered so that coherence and cohesion in writing can be achieved.In this case, cohesion in writing can be reached through the appropriate use of conjunctions.Many L2 learners may make mistakes in using conjunctions in their sentences.

D. METHODOLOGY
In order to investigate the use of conjunctions in L2 learners' writing, the writer conducted research.In this research, the writer employed content analysis method.Content analysis is a systematic attempt to examine some forms of verbal or image communication such as newspapers, diaries, letters, speeches,movies, or television shows.It defines the process of summarizing and reporting written data -the main contents of data and their messages (Cohen, Manion, Morisson, 2007).In this paper, the data used were the written forms, i.e. learners' essays.
To examine the problems in learners' writing and find the conjunctions used in learners' writing, the writer collected eight essays produced by eight learners.The learners were lecturers of Universitas Pembangunan NasionalYogyakarta who had been studying ' Academic Writing' for almost threemonths, from February to April 2015.They intensively studied academic writing in 18 meetings.The data used were learners' mid-term projects, in the form of essay.They submitted their essays at the end of March.

External/Internal
Internal (Unless otherwise specified) The data were collected and classified through the use of observation sheets in the form of tables.Firstly, the writer analyzed the conjunction words in the learners' essays.In this case, some words which were classified as conjunctions were highlighted.Secondly, the writer made sure the conjunctions using Fahnestock's categories (see Table 2) since the classifications are meticulous.The use of Hasan and Halliday's categories (see Table 1) were also employed since all conjunctions which were found, in some cases, were not classified in the Fahnestock's categories.Lastly, the writer listed some inappropriate use of conjunctions in the learners' essays and started to analyze those conjunctions.The codes were used to group those inappropriate conjunctions.Thus, it was easy to determine the analysis of the typical use of theinappropriate conjunctions (see Table 3 and 4).

E. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 1. Types of Conjunctions
Eight essays had been meticulously analyzed.The writer had counted that 126 cohesive devices of conjunctions were found (see Table 1).Student A produced 16 conjunctions, whereas student B produced 11 conjunctions.For student C, 26 conjunctions appeared in the essay.Student D generated 19 conjunctions and student E had 23 conjunctions.Student F, G, and H consecutively produced 7, 13, and 11 conjunctions.
Out of 126 conjunctions, 37 forms and 12 types of conjunctions appeared in eight learners' essays.The 37 forms of conjunctions usedin the learner's essays were whereas, because and, therefore, although, as, and so, in conclusion, besides that*, actually that*, also, besides, so, or, for evidence, at the other side*, first, second, third, actually, then, so that, though, eventhough*, consequently, currently, since, firstly, as, secondly, as a conclusion*, but, even, still, however, on contrary*, in other word*, and in addition.Those conjunctions were categorized into some types, namely sequence, restatement, exemplification, premise, conclusion, addition, anomalous sequence, concession, denied implication, contrast, alternative, and adversative-contrastive.
Among 37 forms of conjunctions, the most frequently appearing conjunction in the learners' essays was and, which was 39 in total.The word becausealso appeared 12 times in the essays.Both words, and andbecause appeared more than 10 times, while the other conjunctions occurred fewer than 10 times.The possible reason for the most frequent words is because the use Cohesive Devices in Learners' Writing of both words in L2 is similar to the use in L1.When learners are familiar with the use of the words, they will not avoid the use of the words.Ringboom (2007, in Ellis 2012), states that "learners, consciously or not, do not look for differences, they look for similarities wherever they can find them (p.355)".Ellis (2012) named the situation as facilitation or positive transfer in which leaners will transfer the familiar form of L1 in L2.Moreover, compared to the other cohesive devices, both conjunctions, andandbecause,are also commonly used in spoken mode.Learners did not meet any difficulties toexpress cohesion using both forms.Thus, learners will employ both conjunctions in their writing task.
Besides, the most significant type of conjunctions appeared in learners' writing was addition.The conjunctions categorized in additionwere 53 words in total, whereas the other categories were fewer than 20 words.Addition type of conjunctions appeared for almost 50% because the use of word andwas also significant, which was 39 words.The word and should be noticed because this conjunction was categorized in addition type.Thus, the addition type of conjunctions was significantly used in learners' writing.

Inappropriate Use of Conjunctions
Another finding of this research is the use of inappropriate conjunctions in learners' writing.32 cases of inappropriate conjunctions were found.Inappropriate use of conjunctions refers to the learners' mistakesand uncommon use in using conjunctions in L2.Theinappropriateuse of conjunctions may have similar mistakes or characteristics from one case to another.In one case, two types of inappropriate used of conjunctions may occur.The cases were grouped into five categories of inappropriate conjunctions, namely, unclassified, wrong mechanism, L1 interference, wrong forms of conjunctions, and grammatical error (see Table 3 and 4).

III L1 interference
The form of conjunction is false since the L1 form appears in L2 (target language).

IV Wrong forms of conjunctions
The conjunction words use the wrong form.

V Grammatical error Grammatical is incorrect. 11
Total 43 Besides that the expansion of oil palm plantation is not one of the way to gain a high foreign exchange.
Actually that there are many ways to gain the purpose which do not decrease environmental quality. V

3.
Besides that the main function of forest to adsorb CO 2 will decrease significantly, the fact cause increasing air pollution.
In conclusion.Indonesia should be stopped converting forest to oil palm plantation because will raise negative impact to environment.
II, V

5.
For evidence, you were often purchased something in supermarket that not planning before.

Student
No. Sentences Code 6.
At the other side, marketer said that his effort was satisfied the customer needs.
Then vary of measurement method facilitatequantification ofqualitativevariables.
Most of active volcanoes stay in Java, and they produce huge amount of mineral as nutrient source for plants.

2.
Population growth should be maintained in a low growth level to avoid food lack, since the capacity of production increase of rice, as a main food, is very limited.

3.
They need more than just food, and farming is not an interesting job any more for young generation.Because, death sentence gives a sense of justice for the victims , the law in Indonesia does not give drug dealers punishment that has deterrent effect , and drug dealers will be a burden to goverment* if they only be given life sentence.

2.
Besidedestroy the lives of users , the drug can destroy another person who is not using drug through transmission illness of the user, such as HIV and hepatitis.

3.
There is an opinion that deterrent effect of sentence to death is ineffective , because the execution is closed .

4.
Although not able to remove all the dealers , at least able to reduce them becausethey scare to die. V

5.
Currently, drug dealer still dare to carry out the transaction , despite of imprisoned.I 6.
Even those who had been sentenced to death also dare to trade drug in prison because not immediately executed.4).Case B5: For evidence, you were often purchased something in supermarket that not planning before.In B5 case, the conjunction word was for evidence.In Halliday and Hasan's and Fahnestock's categorizations, there is no such conjunction.However, it can be accepted as conjunction of cohesive device since the use of it functions to bridge the next sentence with the previous sentence.
Wrong mechanism refers to some cases in which the writing mechanism of the conjunctions is considered wrong.This can also be called as mistakes produced by learners.The form of mistakes was related to the mechanism in using punctuations such as coma, full stop, and etc.Moreover, 18 mistakes happened because of misspelling, such as in D3.
Case D3: There is an opinion that deterrent effect of sentence to death isineffective, because the execution is closed.
Case D3 shows that the use of because is correct but the writing mechanism is incorrect.In this case, the author should not put acomma before a conjunction.When the word because appears in the middle of a sentence, the use of comma is not needed.
L1 interference causes a wrong L2 sentence because the form of conjunction in L2 is transferred from the L1 form.Kroll (1991) states thatwriting an essay may import or shift the insight of L1 principles.In this group, 5 cases are determined as L1 interference, such as in A3 case.Case A3: Using debt can reduce corporates tax return.Interest on the debt can be deducted on the companys* tax return, because paying interest add to the actual cost of the company, and as a consequence reducing earning before taxes, and so it reducing corporates tax return. hepatitis.

3.
There is an opinion that deterrent effect of sentence to death is ineffective , because the execution is closed .

4.
Although not able to remove all the dealers , at least able to reduce them becausethey scare to die.
Currently, drug dealer still dare to carry out the transaction , despite of imprisoned.

6.
Even those who had been sentenced to death also dare to trade drug in prison because not immediately executed.Therefore the harvest from organic farming system is safe and healthy because it is free from pesticide's residue.

3.
In conclusion there are many benefits that can be reached by organic agriculture system.

II
Total 36 The sentence has three conjunctions.All conjunctions are not appropriate so that the sentence fails to sound like the target language (L2).In this case, the mistakes are not only caused by L1 interference.Two cases happened in the sentence.The mistake which occurs in the word because is the same as in D3 case.In L1, because is translated as karena.The transitional signalsand as a consequence and and soare incorrect because the author imposed the L1 principle into L2.In L1, and as a consequence was used because the author translatesthe words dan sebagai konsekuensi, whereas and sowas translated directly from dan kemudian.It is clear that L1 interfered in L2 learners' writing.
The wrong form of conjunctions mean the wrong use of conjunction words.Five cases are included in this type.For instance: Case C4: As a conclusion, comprehensive programs on agriculture, population, and environment are crucial to be maintained.
The conjunction used as a cohesive device wasas a conclusion.In this case, the author made a mistake.In L2, as a conclusion is not common.Instead of as a conclusion, the author should put in conclusion.In the Cambridge dictionary (2008), the word in conclusion is commonly used instead of as a conclusion.
Grammatical error is the last type of inappropriate use of conjunctions.There were 11 cases in this group.For example: Case B9: So that each customer facilitated inidentifying and obtaining the required product.
In this case, the use of so that was incorrect.The word so that does not begin a sentence.The word so that should be put in the middle of a sentence.In this case, the author might make mistake in breaking the sentence.The author may have another independent clause before this sentence.

F. CONCLUSION
It is clear now that the use of conjunctions as cohesive devices is important in writing.Through investigating eight essays, the writer found 126 conjunctions.Out of 126, 37 forms and 12 types of conjunctions appeared in eight learners' essays.The 37 forms of conjunctions in the learner's essays were whereas, because and, therefore, although, and as, and so, in conclusion, besides that*, actually that*, also, besides, so, or, for evidence, at the other side*, first, second, third, actually, then, so that, though, eventhough*, consequently, currently, since, firstly, as, secondly, as a conclusion*, but, even, still, however, on contrary*, in other word*, and in addition.Those conjunctions were categorized into some types, namely sequence, restatement, exemplification, premise, conclusion, addition, anomalous sequence, concession, denied implication, contrast, alternative, and adversativecontrastive.
Besides, the writer also found that some conjunctions were used inappropriately in the learners' writing.The writer found 32 cases of inappropriate use of conjunctions.The cases were grouped into five categories of inappropriate use of conjunctions, namely, unclassified, wrong mechanism, L1 interference, wrong forms of conjunctions, and grammatical error (see Table 3 and 4).Most cases show that the inappropriate use of conjunctions is the impact of L1 which appears in the target language (L2).Thus, it may trigger the learners to make mistakes (see Table 4).
The inappropriate use of conjunctions give implication in the teaching of writing in L2.Learners may produce essays which are not cohesive and coherent because of the inappropriate use of Cohesive Devices in Learners' Writing conjunctions.Through this research, teacher can emphasize the use of cohesive devices, especially conjunctions.Teacher can pay attention to certain features of conjunctions in L2.The mistakes also alarm the teacher to allow students to do peer editing.The finding of this research can be a resource to help teacher in teaching and learning writing in the ESL context.