The Formation of Indonesian and Japanese Affixal Negation

Abstract


Introduction
Negation is one of the universal grammatical systems that hold interesting problems to be analyzed.One of them is related to the scope of the affixal negation constituent, which the researcher explores.This article describes some interesting ideas about the word formation process involving affixal negation in both Indonesian and Japanese.In discussing the construction of affixal negation, it is crucial to differentiate between negative and negation.Negative is the element that can produce the negation construction.The form shares the same entity as it can also produce other words whose meaning does not have negation at all.Creating the affixal negation construction requires the negative affix attached to other word units.Negative affixes in Indonesian and Japanese both have the ability to create grammatical and meaningful negation.When treated as grammatical in negative, the affixal negation construction does not always create meaning related to negation.This paper will address how it can happen.
Negation is a sine qua non of every human language but is absent from the other complex systems of animal communication (Déprez & Espinal, 2020;Horn, 2010).Through negation, humans can disclaim and deny an idea or concept.Research about negation has been done since Aristotle and it has been developed in other scientific fields; one of them is linguistics.Aristotle explained that the core of negation theory is an opposition system among paired terms (Horn, 1978).The opposition is classified into four categories.They are 1) Correlation (between two relatives), e.g., double vs. half; 2) Contrariety (between two contraries), e.g., good vs. bad; 3) Privation (private to positive), e.g., blind vs. sight; and 4) Contradiction (affirmative to negative), e.g., he sits vs. he does not sit.
Classification of negation categories has been developed through research, especially in linguistics.It was started by an opposition statement from Aristoteles, and more classifications of negations were expanded after him.Jespersen (1917) classifies negation as special negation and nexal negation.Klima (1964), on the other hand, classifies it as sentence negation and constituent negation.Another negation classification is from Payne (1985), who differentiates negation into standard negation, negated quantifier, inherently negative quantifier, negated adverbial, and inherently negated adverbs.This was followed by Horn (1989), who divided negation into descriptive negation and metalinguistics negation.Varied classifications of negation are proposed by language experts, but the person concerned with the discussion of negation form is Klima (1964).
One classification of negation that focuses on discussing form was carried out by Klima (1964).This theory consists of negation dichotomies that differ into constituent and sentence.Although some scholars disagree with this theory, others found similarities between the theory and other languages outside English.Affixal negation is one of the negation subdomains of constituent negation, and it focuses on the implication of affixes in forming the negation construction within a language.In his study, he included morphology, syntaxis, and semantics in describing the characteristic element that contributes to the formation of the affixal negation category (Joshi, 2020).
The growth of research concentrating on negation comparison in Indonesia is still limited, but not in Japanese.One of the initial research was completed by Sya'diah (2016), who compares Indonesian negations and Mange (local language of North Maluku, Indonesia) and then followed by Syafar (2020), Sulaiman (2020), dan Adiantika (2020), who compared Indonesian and English.Triyono, Sahayu, and Margana (2020) compare Indonesian negation with Germany.The contrastive research between Indonesian and other languages still focuses on sentence negation; none of them concentrate on affixal negation construction as descriptive or contrastive research.In the Japanese language, several studies have the main function of comparative research, including Weinreich (1964) and Nomura (1973), who compare the Japanese affixal negation.Other contrastive research with other languages has also been conducted by Fujita (1975) and Nishioka (1999) that compare Japanese and English and then Kato &Kato (2009) with Spanish as well as Hiraide (2020).Research that compares the negation in Japanese and Korean has also been done by Kim& Sells (2011) and Yoon (2013), andDanielewicz (2016) tries to compare Japanese with Arabic.Contrastive research on affixal negation in Indonesian and Japanese has never been done.
Improvement is needed in research about affixal negation in Indonesian.Currently, there is no specific research that focuses on this issue, and none of them tries to compare it to other languages.It is also the main reason this paper will try to describe the similarities and differences of affixal negation in Indonesian and Japanese.

Methodology
The main source of data on this article is taken from dictionaries and articles that have been published, especially those that discuss negation.The dictionaries used in this research are Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (the fifth edition), which will be named KBBI V, and Nihongo Kokugo Daijiten or NKD.KBBI V was chosen as the main source as it is the most complete raw data for Indonesian vocabulary, the same as Nihongo Kokugo Daijiten dictionaries, which is also the complete source for Japanese.
The analysis of the data was done using the contrastive linguistic approach, which is suitable for comparing languages within language studies (Whitman, 1970).As one of the approaches that can be used in comparing language, there are at least two analytical methods, including theoretical contrastive analysis and applied contrastive analysis (Ke, 2019).In theoretical contrastive analysis, the analytical steps in comparing the language use the general grammatical theories, which are later followed by observing the universal categories or universal features.The universal category (X) is common to all languages or at least to the pair of languages being compared.The contrastive analysis task is to examine how these universal categories or features (X) are recognized and used in particular languages, for example, A and B. In contrastive morphology, the universal category X can be a group of morphological features.Contrastive theory then compares how language A and language B rely on this set of morphological features to form their respective Xa and Xb morphological systems and in what way the two systems differ from each other (Ke, 2019).This research used a contrastive linguistic approach to find similarities and differences in affixal negation in Indonesian and Japanese.As a result, the first step in analyzing the data is to determine the universal grammatical features of the languages analyzed and then compare how Indonesian and Japanese enforce the universal features from the perspective features to compare how both languages prevail toward the systems (Ke, 2019).This research compared the affixal negation between two languages.The theory of negation is that affixal is commonly used to compare the formation of affixal negation construction in two languages.The classification of negative affixes used in this research was referred to by Sudaryono (1993) for Indonesian and Kishimoto (2018) for Japanese.Both kinds of research are chosen because they can elaborate most of the native affixes that can form affixal negation construction in detail and complete.Based on the clarification, data that contain negative affixes will be classified based on their form.
After the classification, the data were analyzed and determined based on the valid system during affixal negation formation.The analysis of theoretical contrastive was bidirectional or multidirectional because it analyzes the universal features of grammar from multi-language perspectives (Ke, 2019).The study included the process of affixal negation formation in Indonesian and Japanese.Through analysis, the same features between the two languages were unveiled and they were mentioned constantly while the differences were named as variables.Constant variables were also named tertium comparationis in Latin, which means common ground that unifies two compared elements, abbreviated as TC.

Affixal negation in Indonesian
Affixal negation formation includes prefixes and suffixes (Joshi, 2020).Both Indonesian and Japanese use the same strategies in affixal negation formation by including prefixes.Some of the Indonesian prefixes that can be used to form negation affixes are a-, awa-, de-, des-, dis-, in-, im-, i-, non-, nir-, tan-, and tuna-(Sudaryono, 1993).These affixes can also be called negative affixes because they can be used to form negation construction.Some of the negative affixes in Indonesian originated from the local language and foreign language, those that are taken from the local language are: awa-, tan-, tuna-, and nir-.Prefiks awa-, tan-, and tuna-originated from the old Java language while nir-is taken from Balinese (Sealang, 2005).The use of these prefixes can be seen in the following samples: (1) Awaracun (KBBI V, 2021, p. 134) 'Doesn't contain poison' (2) Nirguna (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1149) 'Useless' (3) Tansuara (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1671) 'Without voice' (4) Tunadaksa (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1790) 'Body defect' Affix awa-, nir-, tan-, and tuna-are words taken from the local language originating from the Sanskrit language (Sealang, 2005).It has been understood that the process of affixal negation formation can be done by attaching the negative affix to a single word.Affix is a bound morpheme attached to words and is also an independent morpheme.However, it is also common to find its use where the words do not have the basic words, as shown in the following example.
(5) Nirwana (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1149) 'A condition 'without soul' (an expression in Budism)' Nirwana is a word that is borrowed entirely; as a result, the word wana without affixal does not have the meaning that constitutes nirwana.Wana in Indonesian has two meanings which are "forest" and "tribes" that live in the Poso region, Central Sulawesi Province (KBBI V, 2021).
Besides the negative affix from the local language, Indonesian also loans negative affixes from English.Some of them are generally variants of sounds of the other affixes.However, in Indonesian, these affixes are classified by their forms as it is shown in the following data: Affixes de-and des-arerrealizations prefix de-originated from Latin de-'off, from' via Old French des-which is also taken from Latin dis-(Oxford Dictionary, 2023).Indonesian borrows de-in English and objectify it as des-.Although des-is the form that is used in Old French, it can still be understood that affix des-in Indonesian resulted from English, as shown by the words attached to affix des-on the data, which are words that originated from English.Datum ( 7) is not normative datum in Indonesian.The form of the words is actually disorientasi using the dis-prefix.However, datum ( 7) is still valid because it presents in KBBI, meaning that the words have been approved as the official words in Indonesian.In addition, the prefix des-has also been approved as a prefix in Indonesian.
The same variation also happens to i-, in-, and im-which is the other form of the prefix in-.
As it is shown in the following data: Prefix i-acts as a negative affix on datum (9) and is borrowed from the prefix il-in English.
Prefix il-, ir-, and im-are the variations which are resulted from the assimilation process from the prefix in-which is absorbed from English and Latin (Chapman and Skousen, 2005).The prefix im-and in-from datum (10) and datum (11) are taken as they are from the source language.
When a negative affix is attached to the word that is disclaimed, there are not many changes in terms of sound.The changes come from the omission of sound which commonly happens when the prefix that is used is dis-.As it is shown in the following datum.
(12) Distabilitas (KBBI V, 2021, p. 398 ) 'Instability' When prefix dis-attached to words that begin with /s/ such as stabilitas, the omission of one sound /s/ will make the final word change as distabilitas as shown on datum (12).This form is also present in other forms such as instabilitas, which is absorbed as it is from its original English language, instability.Both words distabilitas and instabilitas share the same meaning.The process of word formation is pretty interesting to be explored.Dis-as a prefix is absorbed into Indonesian from English.Stabilitas is also taken from English, which means stability.Then there is consistency during the borrowing of word elements from the same language source, it might imply that the result of the loanword process will be instabilitas.However, in Indonesian, it presents not only in its original form, instabilitas, but also distabilitas.
In English, the word formation process with the prefix dis-does not indicate the omission of sound, as shown in the datum (12).It can also be seen in the following words, such as dissatisfaction and disseason, where the dis-as prefix attaches to satisfaction and season without the omission of the sound /s/.Datum (12) shows that the construction of an affixal negation that consists of a negative affix with words attached to it are both components that are borrowed separately.Because loan words are also present in Indonesian without the attachment of negative prefixes.Besides being loaned separately, there is also intact form of loan word process in affixal negation construction, as it is seen in the following datum.
(13) Disosiatif (KBBI V, 2021, p. 398) 'Dissociate' Datum ( 13) is borrowed as a whole from English where the word's original form is dissociate.In English, this word is formed by the use of the prefixes dis-and sociate.However, in Indonesian, borrowing is done as a whole, so the word sosiatif is not present.This loanword process can be found in some cases in Indonesian, as seen as follows.
(14) Anonim (KBBI V, 2021, p. 91) 'Anonymous' The word anonim is a borrowed word from English.It is taken from the late Latin form Greek in the 16th century which is formed from the prefix an-'without' and anoma 'name' and suffix -ous (Oxford Dictionary, 2023).This word is taken into Indonesia as a whole, datum (14) shows that the word without the presence of the negative affix is not available in Indonesian.
The difference in gaining negative affixes in Indonesian makes them have their role in word form.The affix from the local language can only be attached to the words rooted in Indonesia, while the affix absorbed from the foreign language can only be used on words borrowed from the foreign words.However, in some cases, you can also find affixes from the local language attached to words absorbed from English, as seen below.
(15) Nirkoneksi (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1149) 'Does not need direct connection' It does not only occur one time where the negative affix from a local language such as nirattaches to the loanword that is koneksi as it is seen on datum (25).It also presents the word nirhubung on datum (20), as the negative prefix on the words comes from the local language while the rood word is borrowed from the foreign language.
The word forms with affixal negation can be presented in (2) different versions, but they still share the same meaning.It is shown in datum ( 14), which is also present in another form that is awanama, it is formed with the prefix awa-(which is taken from the local language) and the word nama.Anonim and awanama share the same meaning: tanpa nama or 'without a name'.
When a word is attached to a negative affix, it causes a change not only in word formation but also in word category.The process of change in affixal negation formation is derivative because it might lead to a new word (Joshi, 2012;Joshi, 2020).In forming the affixal negation construction, the negative prefix can attach to the different grammatical categories that influence nouns, adjectives, and even verbs.In Indonesian, the changes in categories can be seen as followings.( 16 Either the process can cause change or not is present in the local language's negative affix.Meanwhile, the affixed borrowed from a foreign language does not show changes in categories during affixal negation formation.As seen in the following data: The process of affixal negation formation by using the negative affix taken from the foreign language will most likely follow the system of word formation from the same language.Not only can it attach to words, but affixes can also attach to compound words, as seen below. (25) Tunahargadiri (KBBI V, 2021, p. 1790) 'Feeling inferior to others' As tuna-attached on datum (25), which is a compound word harga diri 'pride'.Affixal negation construction that is formed can also be re-affixation by adding more affix on words as seen as: ( The data show that the words that have been added with negative affixes can still get reaffixation by adding the prefix me-on datum (26), as well as suffix pe-on datum (28), and a combination of affix me-kan on datum (27).

Affixal Negation in Japanese
In Japanese, negative affixes can be found in hi-, hu-, bu-, mu-, and mi- (Martin, 2004).These prefixes are borrowed from the Chinese language.Prefix hi-originated from fei in Chinese, the prefix fu-from pu, and the prefix mu-from wu (Weinreich, 1964).At least there are four kanji that act as a negative affix in Japanese they are hi-(非) 'negation,' fu-(不) 'negation,' mi-(未) 'incompletion,' and mu-(無) 'negation' (Nomura, 1973;Kishimoto, 2018).Kanji, which serves as a negative affix, not only acts as a prefix but also as a suffix.However, when they become the suffix, those read as kun yomi, is present in datum (41).So far, no further reference explains attachment to negative affix in Japanese can cause the change of sound, but datum (41) shows the change of sound from /h/ to /b/ on words harai when being attached to prefix fu-.Negative affix can also attach to a combination of kanji as it is seen below.Datum (42) shows the prefix mi-attached to the kanji combination, which is read as onyomi.While datum (43) indicates how negative affix attaches to kanji combination which is read as kunyomi.Negative affix in Japanese is not only attached to singular words but also plural forms as seen as:  44) is taken from the words fuhei and fuman which form a plural construction.It is similar to datum (45) from muri and mutai.Data indicate that the plural form of words would make the negative affix present double as long as they use the same negative affix.
In Japanese, some affixes are borrowed from English such as noo-puree 'no play', noogeemu 'no game', noo-hitto 'no hits', noo-ran 'no runs', noo-taimu 'no time', noo-kaunto 'no count', noo-saido 'no side', noo-siido 'unseeded (team)' (Martin, 2004).The loanword process of negator no from English can be used on borrowed lexicon and lexicon which originated from Japanese, such as noo-kankei 'no interest' (see Martin, 2004), which is the positive form of kankei 'relation'.However, the user of these expressions cannot be found in the dictionary, but it is present in the actual conversation in Japanese.
The derivation process on affixal negation formation can cause changes in categories; sometimes, it remains as it is.In Japanese, negative affixes can only be attached to nouns and adjectives, especially affixal negation (Kishimoto, 2018).As seen as follows.
(  46) and ( 47) do not show category changes.While datum (48) indicates changes when hijoushiki is used with the suffix -na.The formation of datum (48) will not change if it can act as a noun within a sentence.In Japanese, adjective categories are classified into adjective and adjective-noun (Ohkado, 1991).In affixal construction, only noun categories can be practiced in the process.
An adjective category has a distinct form compared to a noun-adjective, especially when explaining the noun in Japanese.The adjective is marked with the suffix -i when it is used to explain the noun, as it can also be named ikeyoushi or adjective -i.Meanwhile, the adjective noun is marked with the suffix -na when it is used to explain a noun, and it is also named na-keiyoushi or adjective -na.Adjectivei cannot take part in affixal negation formation, although datum (36) shows that there is adjective -i formed from kanji 不 as one of the kanji that acts as the negative affix.However, the process of forming affixal negation that occurs in datum (36) is slightly different from the process in other data.The presence of the negative affix 不 in the word mazui in datum (36) is a denial of the word aji which has the kanji 味.In datum (36), the kanji 味 is on yomi reading.The word aji means 'taste', and the presence of negative affixes causes a process of denial and produces the meaning 'tasteless'.This different process occurs due to the loanwords process in Japanese that is originating from Chinese.
The construction of negation is affixal is marked by the disclaimed process of a word by the affix.In Japanese, there is a negative affixal construction that can be easily recognized in the root words, but there is also a possibility that the words are present as the basic word without negative affixes, as shown in the following data.Datum (49) shows that jou without the prefix hi-is not present in Japanese.However, kanji 常 can replace it and read as kunyomi, tsune, which means 'usual'.It can be said that during the formation of affixal negation, there are words that can be directly outlined to determine the root words to look for similar sounds as seen in data ( 31)-(34).However, there are times when the basic word has a different way to be read when there is affixal negation process before it.
Hijou can act as a noun as it has particle no, which functions as a modificatory on noun phrase.Moreover, hijou can also be categorized as an adjective when it is attached to the suffix -na to modify the noun.It can also act as an adverb when used with the particle ni when explaining the verb within the sentences.When it is presented as a noun, datum (49) has the meaning of 'emergency'.It is different when it is categorized as an adjective and adverb, hijou can be understood as 'unusual', a disclaimed toward 'usual' that makes datum (49) can be classified into affixal negation elements if words that disclaimed.

Conclusion
Contrastive analysis on affixal negation construction in Indonesia and the Japanese shows a couple of constant features and variables.Constant features during the formation of affixal negation in Indonesian and Japanese were shown in the loanword process, change of sound, word construction, synonym, and derivation process.On the loanword process, it shows that both Indonesian and Japanese have affixal negation originating from a foreign language.The loanword process results from sound alteration when the affixal negation forms a lexical construction with basic words.Basic words that attach to affixal negation can be in the form of singular or compound words, as a result of foreign loanwords.There is affixal negation that produces the same meaning but in a different form.The process of affixal negation construction requires a derivation process that can change word categories, but sometimes it might change nothing.
In some cases, the variable features between the formation of affixal negation in both Indonesian and Japanese include the process of affixation, role, and flexibility.In Japanese, words that refer to affixal negation construction cannot proceed with another affixation.It is different in Indonesian where the words formed as the construction of affixal negation can take another process.In terms of role, negative affixes in Japanese are crucial for affixal negation and for forming words that do not contain negative meaning.As in flexibility, the construction of affixal negation has a more flexible category because it comes from varied sentence categories by allowing other constituents to get involved.